What issues do HRD managers need to take into account when planning a Essay

What issues do HRD managers need to take into account when planning a management learning and development programme - Essay Example Thus the knowledge-based economy pertains to knowledge creation and its diffusion with the role of information management. All the actors of this new knowledge based economy, whether they are the individuals and companies or even the state have to be wary of losing out the in fiercely competitive global economy .This means that the education and training of the labour force has to be based upon maintenance and knowledge enhancement of the knowledge capital in order to be more innovative and adaptable to technological changes. The HRD plays an important role in the personal development of the labour force.In essence, personal development theory argues that if management implements a specified set of employment as well as work practices, it is going to lead to better performance. A lot of the practices such as teamwork, redesigned jobs, employee participation, teamwork as well as communication and information sharing - have been shown to improve performance, but not in a consistent manner. The strongest results have been obtained where models appear to approximate the real world of work and where measurement and sampling errors are reduced by using special-purpose surveys targeted at workplaces in specific. A common thread running through these studies is that personal development contributes to high performance where workers are expected and encouraged to perform at a high standard. This occurs where HRD and work organization practices provide workers with discretion or control over their work, where they are developed to work competently, and where they are supported and rewarded by management to work co-operatively with colleagues. This theory suggests three mechanisms - structural, motivational and cognitive - that lead to high performance. Structural alterations, for example, the creation of teams or introduction of a new reward system, may provide an initial rather than continuing improvement in performance. For continuous improvement, employees need to increase and sustain their motivation at a high level - a possibility that arises through perceptions and emotions related to greater work satisfaction and empowerment - and/or cognitive changes need to be introduced. These might include improved management communication and investment in formal training and/or on-the-job learning (Appelbaum et al. 737-775). The last 2 decades have seen a significant shift in human resource development (HRD) research from an essentially micro-analytical approach to a new macro-strategic perspective. Other from the conventional administrative role, HRD has identified new roles in terms of employee champion, change agent and strategic partner. Over the years, there has been much speculation about the role of the HRD in the organization going ahead. Authors and business gurus have made various predictions regarding the role, function as well as size of the HRD department. HRD responsibilities have typically come under fire as a result of its perceived unresponsiveness as well as administrative and not strategic focus along with the perception that they are cost centres and not star wealth creation centres they bring in the revenue. The impact on Training of the knowledge based economy thus requires the need for instilling the culture of effective Knowledge management into the learning and education as a whole. According to (Psarras 2006) "Knowledge management is the process of critically managing knowledge to meet existing needs, to identify and exploit existing and acquired knowledge assets and to

Research project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Research project - Essay Example These three areas if viewed from the map represent an equilateral triangle with close proximity to each other as well as their convergence near the central region instil an interesting dimension to the research which would be further reflecting the effectiveness of the governmental policies in these adjoining areas (Beer, 2003). The research will direct its focus on the intermediate people of the region and will be exploring the living standards of these people. Education as an important parameter in influencing occupation For the purpose of comparison among the occupational pattern of the three areas, education can be regarded as an important parameter. Occupation generally reflects quality of life, social status, scope of future development and impact on the family life (Salary and wages in Australia, 2011, p. 1). Occupation reflects the income aspects in the life of the people and education acts as a very important variable linking occupation as well as income (Pearson, 2011). Now the focus will be on the employment structure of each of the post codes in study with respect to Australia as a whole. Let us first consider the case of Sury Hills. Employment patterns in Sury Hills The calculations derived from prior the week of census 2006, a total of 3,514 people aged 15 years and over constituted the total labour force in comparison with 9,607,987 in Australia as a whole. 66.9% were employed on a full time basis in comparison with 60.7% in Australia as a whole. 22.5% were employed on a part time basis in comparison with 27.9% in Australia as a whole. 3.4% were employed but were away from work with comparison of 3.5% in Australia as a whole. 2.3% of the people showed employment but without stated hours of work in comparison with 2.6% in Australia as a whole. In the unemployed category 4.8% were found to be unemployed in comparison with 5.2% in Australia as a whole (2006 Census QuickStats, Sury Hills 2012). Fig.1. (2006 Census QuickStats, Sury Hills 2012) Employm ent in different sections/departments The professional accounted for around 35.6% of the employed persons over the age 15 years in comparison with 19.8 in Australia as a whole. The percentage of

Nfc Awards In Pakistan Economics Essay

Nfc Awards In Pakistan Economics Essay Pakistan is a federation consisting of four provinces, federally administered tribal areas, northern areas and Islamabad Capital Territory. Pakistan is a federation but its government is highly centralized, so majority of the revenues are collected at the center and then re-distributed vertically between federal and provincial governments, and horizontally among provinces through National finance Commission (NFC) awards. Then the provinces further re-distribute the resources to local governments through a revenue-sharing formula framed by Provincial Finance Commission (PFC). The criteria of revenue sharing has always been a bone of contention between the federation and the provinces. This is mainly because the federal government keeps a larger part of the revenues to themselves while provinces are left with fewer resources to carry on their development activities, thats why they face budget deficits very frequently. Moreover, there is a little autonomy and capacity for provinces to c ollect taxes on their own, so mainly they have to rely on the revenues relocated to them by the Federal government through NFC awards. The share provinces get from the Federal government is not sufficient to carry on the development projects, which is the reason they get into budget deficits very frequently. For proper service and delivery there is need of a higher share for provinces in NFC awards. Systematic Resources transfers among governments occurs at 4 levels. Firstly, from federal governments to provincial governments through National Finance Commission (NFC). Secondly, from provincial governments to local governments through Provincial Finance Commission (PFC). Thirdly, from federal to local, and lastly from local to local. In this report, I will focus mainly on systematic resource transfers from Federal to Provincial governments through National Finance Commission awards. National Finance Commission is constituted under Article 160(1) of the 1973 constitution for the smooth and thoughtful revenue transfers between Federal and Provincial governments. Constitutionally, it is to be held every 5 years by the President of Pakistan to review the resource sharing mechanism for the equitable fiscal transfers between Central and Provincial governments. Certain taxes collected from provinces are added in the distribution pool and then re-distributed to provinces according to the revenue sharing formula. NFC decides what percentage of the total revenues will be retained by the Federal government and what share will go to the provinces. What taxes to include in the distribution pool has always been a question of debate. The chairman of the commission is the Federal Finance Minister, and its members include all provincial finance ministers and experts to be nominated by the president of Pakistan in consultation with the provincial governors. The main charter of NFC is concerned with the following matters. Distribution of specified taxes and duties between the federation and the provinces. Payment of financial grants to provincial governments. Borrowing power exercised by the Federal and Provincial governments. Any other financial matter referred to the commission. As per law, NFC was supposed to be constituted for smooth and equitable revenue transfers between the Federal government and provinces. But in reality, it faced difficulties which hindered its development. Only 7 NFC awards have been given up till now, of which 3 were conclusive. The rest 4 remained inconclusive because federal government and provinces couldnt reach an agreement on the distribution criteria of revenues, therefore an interim award was awarded by the President in this situation. This paper will evaluate all the NFC awards in the history of Pakistan. Its related issues will be highlighted and improvements in the resource transfer mechanism will be recommended. 2. THE EVOLUTION OF NFC AWARDS 2.1 PRE-INDEPENDENCE REVENUE SHARING (NIEMEYER AWARD) Before independence of Pakistan, Niemeyer Award was followed in British India for the distribution of revenues between the Federal government and provinces, under the Government of India Act, 1935. All the financial matters between Federal and provincial governments were ruled by this act. Under this award, sales tax was a provincial subject, and 50 percent of the income tax collections were subjected to be redistribute. Even after the independence, Niemeyer award was followed till March 1952 with some adjustment in railway budget, sharing of income and sales tax. 2.2 POST-INDEPENDENCE REVENUE SHARING (RAISMAN AWARD) After the independence of Pakistan, Sir Jeremy Raisman was asked to devise a revenue sharing mechanism for allocation of revenues between federal and provincial governments. Thus he formed a revenue sharing formula called Raisman award in 1952. Considering the poor financial condition of the newly born state, a 50 percent share of sales tax was given to the federal government. Out of incomes of 50 percent income tax, 45 percent was given to East Pakistan, while the rest of the portion was given to the West Pakistan. 2.3 REVENUE SHARING UNDER ONE UNIT During 1955, Sindh, Punjab, Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa were professed as one unit- The West Pakistan. East Pakistan and West Pakistan were declared as the two separate units. The two awards, of 1961 and 1964, distributed the revenue between East Pakistan and West Pakistan. 2.3.1 The 1961 Award In this award, the share of East Pakistan from divisible pool was decided to be 64 percent, while that of West Pakistan was 46 percent. 30 percent of the sales tax was relocated to provinces on the basis of their respective collection. While the remaining duties on agricultural land and capital value tax on immovable property were given to the units as per their collection. 2.3.2 The 1964 Award Under this award, the divisible pool consisted of sales tax, income tax, export duty and excise duty. 30 percent of the sales tax were relocated to each province according to its collection. The share of center and provinces from the divisible pool was decided to be 35 percent and 65 percent respectively. While the share of East Pakistan and West Pakistan remained the same as in previous award i.e. 64 percent and 46 percent respectively. 2.3.3 National Finance Committee 1970 A committee was formed instead of a commission in April 1970 to devise a formula for revenue sharing between federation and the federating units. The divisible pool remained unchanged, though the federal and provincial governments share in the divisible pool was declared as 20:80 respectively. 54 percent of the provincial share was given to East Pakistan, while the rest 46 percent went to West Pakistan. The distribution among the provinces of West Pakistan was: Punjab 56.5 percent, Sindh 23.5 percent, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 15.5 percent, and Baluchistan 4.5 percent. After the separation of East Pakistan, their revenue share was transferred to the provinces of West Pakistan. The revenue proportion remained the same, but the size of the pie was changed. NATIONAL FINANCE COMMISSION 1973 The 1973 constitution made mandatory for the government of Pakistan to make a National Finance Commission every 5 years for fair revenue distribution between Federal government and the provinces. From that point of time, West Pakistan started its journey after the separation of East Pakistan. From 1974 onwards, all the awards have been given under the National finance Commission. In reality, NFC has not been constituted every 5 years, contrary to what the law demanded. Lets briefly go through the various NFC awards in the history. First NFC Award 1974 After an increase in the number and amount of taxes between 1951 and 1970, there was a contraction in both in 1974, reducing the size of the divisible pool. The divisible pool only included income tax, sales tax, and export duty. The distribution ratio between federal government and provinces remained the same as 20:80 respectively. The criteria for horizontal distribution among provinces was decided to be population. Punjab, being the biggest in population, was advantaged. Its share was increased from 56.50 percent to 60.25 percent. While the other three provinces suffered, Sindh suffering the most. The resource distribution among provinces is presented in the table below. Table 1 1974 NFC Award-Provincial share Punjab Sindh Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Baluchistan 60.25% 22.50% 13.39% 3.86% To combat the weak fiscal position of the provinces, Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa were granted aid of Rs.50 million and Rs.100 million respectively. Second NFC Award 1979 The second NFC was constituted by the President general Zia-ul-Haq in 1979. But it held no meetings, consequently no award was given. Therefore, the award of 1974 was followed as an interim award. After census was held in 1981, the population ratios changed and so did the provincial share in NFC awards. The provincial share was adjusted according to the new census, which led some improved conditions in Baluchistan and Sindh, whereas the share of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa remained unchanged. The new provincial resource distribution according to the changed population is illustrated in the given table. Table 2 1979 NFC Award- Provincial Share Punjab Sindh Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Baluchistan 57.97% 23.34% 13.39% 5.30% Third NFC Award 1985 The third NFC was also constituted in Zia-ul-Haq regime in 1985. It held nine meetings in 3 years but failed to produce any fruitful results, mainly due to political instability. So the award of 1974 was followed till 1990. Fourth NFC Award 1991 After a long time, NFC became successful in giving recommendation in 1991. NFC is supposed to announce an award every 5 years, but there was a gap of 17 years between the previous award of 1974 and the 1991 award. This award came with some improvements and expansion in the divisible pool. Central excise on tea, tobacco, and betel nut was added in the divisible pool. So the divisible pool consisted of income tax, sales tax, export duty, and excise duty. However, custom duty still remained with Federal government. Federal government also took the responsibility of financing the provinces in case of deficits. The Federal and provincial share remained to be at 20 percent and 80 percent respectively. It can be said that the 1991 award was so far the best deal for provinces. But this award could not make any development regarding the diversification in the revenue sharing mechanism. The sole criteria for revenue sharing among provinces remained to be population. Disagreements among provinc es hindered the development in the resource sharing criteria. However, if we look at the positive side, this award considerably expanded the volume of provincial share in the revenues collected by the Federal government by around 18 percent as compared to 1974 award. This was mainly due to the addition of excise duty on certain items in the divisible pool. The 1991 award was a step forward to fiscal decentralization and provincial autonomy in the country. The 1973 constitution acknowledged the right of provinces to get royalty on natural resources on the basis of collection by each province. Royalty on gas and crude oil, development surcharge on gas, and profits from hydro-electricity were relocated to provinces in the form of straight transfers. As a result, the transfers to provinces increased from 28 percent (Rs. 39 billions) to 45 percent (Rs. 64 billion) of federal tax revenue. The share of each province under this award is given in the table below. Table 3 1991 NFC Award-Provincial Share Punjab Sindh Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Baluchistan 57.88% 23.28% 13.54% 5.30% Provincial share didnt have any changes because population was still the sole criteria for revenue distribution and no census was held since 1981. However, the volume of provincial share increased due to the inclusion of new taxes in the divisible pool. In addition to this, special grants were also provided to provinces to meet their developmental needs. The amount of these grants is illustrated in table 4. Table 4 1991 NFC Award-Provincial Grants Amount/Years Punjab Sindh Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Baluchistan Amount 1000 700 200 100 Next Years 3 5 3 3 (Rs.in million) However there was an increase in the flow of funds to the Provincial governments, provinces were advised to generate their own funds, but the autonomy and funds generating capacity were not sufficient as needed. Fifth NFC Award 1996 The 5th NFC award was announced in late 1996 by the care-taker government of that time. This award included all the federal taxes in the divisible pool. Which comprise: income tax, sales tax, capital value tax, wealth tax, excise duties (except the excise duty on gas charged at wellhead) and any other tax collected by federal government. Royalty on crude oil and development surcharge on gas were also relocated to provinces in the form of straight transfers. The incentive of matching grants was also given to the provinces but up to a certain limit; only if provinces exceeded their revenue target of 14.2 percent they would get matching grants. However, numerous objections have been made by the members of parliament elected to the provincial and federal governments following the 1997 general elections. With the expansion of federal divisible pool, the federal-provincial ratio in this award changed radically. Earlier it was 20 percent for federal government and 80 percent for provinces. In this award, the ratios were changed to 62.5 percent for federal government and 37.5 percent for provinces. One reason for decreasing the provincial share in the divisible pool is the overestimation of GDP growth rate. During the period when this award was being exercised, the country faced internal and external upsets which negatively affected the economy. Some say that provinces would be in a better financial situation if previous award of 1991 award was continued to follow that time. The sole criteria for resource distribution continued to be population. No development was made in this area. Considering the miserable situation of Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, special grants of 4 and 3.3 and billions rupees were awarded to them respectively for the next 5 years. Sixth NFC Award 2000 The 6th NFC was constituted in year 2000 by the President General Pervez Musharraf. It held 11 meetings but could reach to any conclusions due to disagreements among the members of NFC. Provinces were demanding a share up to 50 percent, as well as diversification in the resource distribution criteria. Another NFC was constituted on 21st July, 2005 during President Musharrafs regime. But it too, like the previous NFC, stuck in a deadlock among its members and failed to give any recommendations due to the conflicting demands of its members. After an unsuccessful attempt to generate consensus on the resource distribution mechanism, all the provincial Chief Ministers asked the President to give a fair and justified award which would be acceptable to all stakeholders. So General Musharraf amended the Distribution of Revenues and Grants-in-Aid Order, 1997 by issuing Ordinance No. 1 of 2006. Thus after a deferral of 6 years, the 1997 award was amended and came into force on 1st July, 2006. Under this award, due to the constant demand from provinces, the provincial share from the divisible pool increase to 45 percent (share in total divisible pool + grants), with gradual increase of 1 percent every year up till the next 5 years. All the taxes of 1996 award were included in the divisible pool. The grants to provinces were increased from Rs.8.7 billion to Rs.27.75 billion. Punjab and Sindh, which didnt receive any grant in the 1997 award, were also given grants of Rs.3.05 billion and Rs.5.83 billion respectively. Seventh NFC Award 2010 The most recent NFC award of 2010 was given in the present democratic government. 2010 NFC award is a milestone in the history of Pakistan, which has bring improvements and variation in the resource distribution criteria. The demands of Sindh, Baluchistan and KPK have been recognized. The most prominent and distinguishing feature of this award is that it has followed a multi-dimensional revenue distribution criteria. In addition to population, other parameters have also been included, such as poverty, underdevelopment, and inverse population density criteria, as demanded by Sindh, KPK and Baluchistan. Baluchistan being the largest in area and scattered in population, demanded the criteria of inverse population density to include in the revenue sharing formula. While Punjab wanted population to remain the only criteria because it is in the provinces advantage. Since 1973 constitution, it is for the first time that resources are not distributed among provinces according to the old popu lation standards, but an advancement has been made in the resource sharing criteria. The formulation of multiple criteria for resource distribution is a commendable step and a way further to fiscal autonomy of provinces. It has been measured as a success of democratic system and provincial partners. Economists have measured it groundwork for Fiscal Federalism in Pakistan. No disputes came in the way of approval of 7th NFC award. It is marked by sacrifices and compromises by all the stakeholders for the sake of national unity and development. The big provinces exhibited flexibility in their approach to accommodate the demands of smaller and backward provinces. The center has sacrificed more than 10 percent of its share for provinces i.e. about Rs.225 billion more were granted to provinces during FY 2011-12 budget [Pakistan Economic Survey (2011)]. All the stakeholders have decided to cut the cost of revenue collection to 1 percent (previously it was 5 percent) to increase the flow of real transfers to provinces. Resultantly, the provincial share from the divisible poo l increased from 47.5 percent to 56 percent in the first year and 57.5 percent for all the remaining years of the award. This award is also significant in a way that all the provinces and center have shown a considerate behavior towards the most backward province Baluchistan. Acknowledging its special development needs, all the stakeholders have agreed to provided Baluchistan Rs.83 billion (9.09 percent) of the provincial pool in the first year of the Award. Punjab has given up 1.27 percent, Sindh 0.39 percent, and KPK 0.26 percent of its share. Whereas Baluchistan has gained 1.82 percent. The federal government has given up more than 10 percent of its share for provinces, which has increased the flow of revenues to provinces. The number one beneficiary of this award is Baluchistan with an additional budget of 175 percent. While KPK, the second most benefitted, received 79 percent, Sindh 61 percent, and Punjab 48 percent additional budget. The resource distribution among provinces is illustrated in table 5. Table 5 NFC Award 2010- Resource Distribution Province % Share in Divisible Pool under 7th NFC % Change in Share Additional Budget % Punjab 51.74 1.27 48 Sindh 24.55 0.39 61 KPK 14.62 0.26 79 Baluchistan 9.09 +1.82 175 Source: Pakistan Economic Review (2010) If we talk about the distribution parameters, 82 percent weightage has been allocated to population, 10.3 percent to poverty, 5 percent to revenue generation/collection, and 2.7 percent to inverse population density. Table 6 illustrates the different parameters and its weightage against each province. Table 6 NFC Award 2010-Revenue Sharing Formula (in percentage) Parameters Weight Punjab Sindh KPK Baluchistan Population 82 57.36 23.71 5.11 13.82 Poverty/backwardness 10.30 23.16 23.41 25.61 27.82 Revenue Collection 5 44.0 50 1.0 5 Inverse Population 2.7 4.34 7.21 81.92 6.54 One of the greatest achievements regarding this award is that it has aimed to reduce disparities among the provinces. This award benefits the two relatively more backward provinces, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Baluchistan, as compared to Sindh and Punjab. Before this award, provinces were getting Rs.550 billion. But in the first year of enforcement of this award provinces got more than Rs.850 billion, and in the next 5 years this amount will increase up to 1250 billion. The greatest achievement of this award is the reduction in inequalities regarding revenue collection in Sindh and Punjab, gas development surcharge from Baluchistan, and hydel profits from KPK. Considering the role of Khyber Pakhtun Khwa in war against terrorism, it has been provided a share of 1 percent from the divisible pool. 4. DEVELOPMENT OF NFC AWARDS OVER TIME Financial resources play the fundamental role in the development of any country. A well thought-out resource distribution is necessary for the development of backward areas so they can be at par with the national growth and progress. The current state of revenue distribution in Pakistan has evolved over time. Various improvements and advancements have been made in the revenue sharing formula since the formation of National Finance Commission. In this section I will analyze the impact of various NFC awards on the fiscal decentralization of the country. In Pakistan fiscal federalism has always been an issue which has never received a serious approach. Out of Seven NFC awards, only four have come up with additional parameters of revenue sharing between the federation and its units. Federal government has taken a less systematic approach to decentralize fiscal powers and functions and made the provinces depend on the center. This has negatively affected the performance and efficiency of provinces to work effectively. In a federation, the basic functions of Central government are maintaining law and order, defense matters, making a sound foreign policy, communications, currency management, general administration, debt servicing, industrial development, and work on public welfare including health and education. The rest of the matters fall within the sphere of Provincial and local governments. But not much effort has been put by our politicians to devolve powers and functions to lower tiers of government. With the passage of time, federal government has over-stretched itself into such matters which are of purely provincial nature, like irrigation, construction of roads, agricultural development, culture and tourism, youth affairs, and rural development. This has increased financial and administrative burden on the center. Federal government has taken too much responsibilities on its shoulders which certainly require more finance. If government is aiming toward devolution of power from center to provincial and local level, these tiers of government must be empowered and enabled to generate their own finance. Federal government generates 93 percent of the resources, while its share in the total expenditure makes up only 72 percent. On the other side, the total expenditure of provinces is 28 percent, and they generate merely 7 percent of the resources. It results in heavy dependency on the center. The argument behind the higher collection by the federation is based on the achievement of equity, efficiency, economy, and the federal governments ability to levy and collect [Kardar (2006)]. As most of the resources are already used up by the Federal government, provinces are left with less opportunities to generate their own resources. Resultantly, provinces have to rely heavily on the resources transferred to them by the center. If we closely look at the historical trend, we can easily understand that the journey of fiscal federalism In Pakistan has always been uneven. Fiscal federalism has always been a dilemma. It is interesting to note that out of seven NFC awards given after 1973 constitution, only few came up with additional parameters to share the revenues with the provinces. Only 3 out of 7 NFC awards were conclusive, the remaining 4 were inconclusive due to disagreements among the members of the commission. Historically, the problem of revenue distribution has never been taken seriously by our politicians and it always faced difficulty because consensus of all the parties involved is must for a new NFC award to be enforced. The resource distribution mechanism/criteria has always been a bone of contention among the provinces. Population, being the sole distribution criteria in all NFC awards (except the recent one) has always been a matter of friction among provinces. This shows a lack of coordination in our policy making. Sindh, Baluchistan and KPK have always demanded the diversification in revenue sharing formula with the inclusion of other factors with population, like poverty, backwardness and revenue generation capacity. Whereas Punjab has stressed over population to remain the sole criteria for revenue distribution because Punjab, being the most populated province, has always got the larger piece of pie in NFC awards. It is interesting to note that Pakistan is the only country in the world which follows one-dimensional formula for revenue distribution. Otherwise everywhere in the world various dimensions are used in view of the needs and economic conditions of the provinces. Due to inflexibility in the resource distribution formula, disparities among the economic conditions of people could not be reduced and diversified needs of provinces could not be catered as it should have been. In the above section, we have discussed each NFC award in detail, its pros and cons, and the percent allocation to provinces under each award. There are substantial disparities in the living standards amongst provinces, and also among the rural-urban areas of each province. Although the removal of discrepancies between urban and rural areas is the responsibility of Provincial Finance Commission, but without provision of adequate amount of resources/funds by the center, provinces will not be able to work on development and reducing inequalities at local level. If we compare the real per capita GDP of all the provinces, we find out that Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has been facing highest inconsistency among rural and urban income, next to Sindh and Punjab. While the gap between rural and urban income in Baluchistan is lesser, the reason is lack of development in its urban areas. Its urban areas are less developed as compared to that of other provinces, because of lesser economic opportunities i n cities. If we look at the historical trends, the first NFC award of 1947 had fewer taxes in the revenue pool. But in 1991 award, some improvements were seen in the revenue distribution. More taxes were made part of distribution pool. In addition, the right of provinces to get royalty on natural resources was given to them on the basis of collection by each province. The divisible pool was further expanded in 1996 award by the inclusion of all the federal taxes. 1996 award moved a step forward towards fiscal decentralization. It also introduced the incentive of matching grants to provinces. But if we look at the grey areas of this award, the expansion of distribution pool resulted in the contraction of provincial share. The federal-provincial share in the pool changed drastically from 20:80 to 62.5:37.5 percent respectively. So practically, no significant developments were observed in actual revenue transfers to provinces. Consequently, provinces fell short of funds and trapped in budget defi cits. Considering the miserable situation of Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, special grants of 4 and 3.3 and billions rupees were awarded to them respectively for the next 5 years. Due to the constant pressure and demands from the provinces, government increased their share in the revenue pool to 45 percent in 2006 interim award. Just the provincial share was increased, no innovation was made in the resource sharing mechanism and it was still at its old population standards. Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtun Khwa were demanding revenue distribution on the basis of poverty. The poverty ratio in Baluchistan is 37 percent and that of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is 44 percent. However, no diversification was made in the distribution criteria. One of the main reason which hindered the development of NFC awards is the conflicting demands of provinces over the resource sharing mechanism. The criteria of revenue dispersal between the center and provinces has always been a matter of conflict between these two tiers of government. Four out of seven NFC awards remained unproductive and unsettled amid this hostility. The complaints of the provinces were heard when the central government agreed to give provinces 40 percent share in the divisible pool with addition of 1 percent every year till the next 5 years. But there is an argument from Federal governments point of view that whenever the share of provinces has increased it gave rise to non-development expenditure which is unproductive. The reason is provincial governments don not have specific development programs in place as well as capacity to raise the living standards of people. The poverty ratio in Baluchistan is 37 percent and that of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is 44 percent, but provincial governments failed to formulate an appropriate strategy to reduce these disparities. This relates to the issue of political economy and public choice. Our electoral system can bring about such a state in which the federal government can be taken over by the larger province due to its majority seats in the National Assembly. Although, in Senate all provinces have equal representation but Senate has power only to discuss on the policy matters, but the decision making right resides with the National Assembly. So it is the National Assembly who has the constitutional supremacy to devise a reasonable resource sharing formula. Furthermore, the federal government does not want to give up its powers to provinces and let them grow autonomously as it will reduce their control on policy matters. This could be seen as since independence, 10 awards have been recommended for justified resource sharing between the center and provinces, but out of them only 3 (1974, 1991, and 2010) initiated by elected governments. The most significant development of the year 2010 was 7th NFC award which brought about some innovation in the revenue sharing criteria. After the independence of Pakistan, It was for the first time that a diversification was brought in the revenue sharing mechanism and some other factors were taken into account with population, like backwardness/ poverty, area and revenue collection. The long-ignored demands of provinces were accepted. With

Paris in the 1920’s †“The Lost Generation” Essay -- History France Pa

Paris in the 1920’s – â€Å"The Lost Generation† Between the end of the First World War and Hitler's seizure of power a cultural explosion occurred in Paris that altered our notions of art and reality and shaped our way of viewing the world ever since. In the 1920's, Paris became the undisputed international capital of pleasure and was regarded as the cultural and artistic center of Europe with a reputation for staging one of its most glamorous eras, as well as some of the most spectacular revues in the world. Imagine for a moment, that it really is 1920's Paris. You are leisurely strolling through the gas lit promenades. World War I is over and the exuberance of jazz musicians, symbolist painters, and American expatriates fills the â€Å"City of Light† with a buzz as sharp as electricity. The city revolves around nothing more than cafà © life, drinking, and dining. A young, American man enters a small, smoky cafà © that is popular among other expatriates. He is the world-famous novelist, F. Scott Fitzge rald, and he sits down next to Ernest Hemingway. The two authors begin a friendship that characterizes the artistic culture of 1920's Paris – an era described by Gertrude Stein as "where the twentieth century was." Finding two artists like Fitzgerald and Hemingway pleasantly chatting together in a random bookstore or cafà © in 1920's Paris was not unusual. Paris swarmed with a number of intellectuals, poets, and artists who had fled America seeking a less materialistic and more uncomplicated lifestyle. Paris was the center of it all. It became a breeding ground for the arts and for some of America's greatest authors, including F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, Gertrude Stein, E.E. Cummings, John Dos Passos, Ezra ... ... N/A. â€Å"Searching for Ernest Hemingway’s Paris.† http://www.thaiair.com/flying/aroundworld/aroundworld-06.htm. Around the World with Thai Airways International. This is a good site because it talks a lot about how Ernest Hemingway saw Paris during the time he was living there, so you can get a good picture of it yourself. It also talks a little bit about modern day Paris and some of the historical places that still remain today from the 1920’s. N/A. http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~garychapman/paris.html. (Home Page) I thought this was a neat site to include because it describes the fashion and costume design of the 1920’s in Paris. There are some good pictures to look at that help you to get a better idea of how Parisian women typically dressed. However, it only focuses on one woman, Dolly Tree, so it is a bit limited.

The Postal Age Book Review

The introduction used by Henkin was unique to the book. He utilized the story of Anthony Burns. A fugitive slave that was captured, Mr. Burns miraculously managed to write several letters from his jail cell in the state of Virginia, 1854. Mr. Burns managed to utilize the facilities postal system to communicate with his lawyer in Boston. Henkin used this story as a powerful introduction to the main portion of the book. The tome, The Postal age is broken down by Henkin into two distinct sections. Joining Network† which primarily focuses on the systematic nut and bolt spread of the postal system, how and what did people mailed and mail in a developing urban environment. The second section is â€Å"Postal Intimacy† which takes a look at the cultural aspect of letter writing styles and the cliches associated to its respective culture. Chapter Two, â€Å"Malleable matters† went on to discuss what people really mailed and how it was molded and evolved during his era of s tudy.Henkin spoke about the History of Transient newspapers were periodicals that were passed along by the post by someone other than the main publisher. People of that time used newspapers to relay information to recipients in very faraway places. This practice was fairly inexpensive as opposed to sending a regular letter. The postal bureaucracy didn’t agree with this practice and proceeded to shut it down. Sometime by the year 1845 Congress had actually passed an act the reduced the price of letters. This price reduction made it more attractive to send Letters as opposed to using Transient Newspapers.Henkin really didn’t cover much of the political legislation regarding such reforms. Covering such topics might have been helpful in completely understand the nuts and bolts of Joining a Network. Furthermore, Henkin addresses the rising transitory movements that were taking place during that time of the century. He addressed in particular how the migrant men of the Gold Rush and those of the Civil War wrote letters. During those times the men of the Gold rush were constantly surrounded be the debauchery of army camps and gold mining towns.Familial correspondence from mothers, sisters and wives became things that morally anchored these wandering men. This form of correspondence became a symbol of domesticity and moral influence. Men who had spend the previous night heavily drinking, carousing with prostitutes could open a letter from his loved ones and be swept up in a fit of repentance. The postal system wasn’t simply a form of communication but rather at times a moral anchor for those of which were a long ways from home. Mr. Henken went on to discuss the other types of the postal system

Hamlet Essay Essay

Good morning teachers and students, our understanding of Hamlet takes many turns and the most important of these is in act 3 scene II. As a pivotal scene in William Shakespeare’s play, audiences gain an understanding of the characters and their actions leading up to this point. Many of the themes in the play come to light in this scene as the plot gathers pace and it is for all these reasons I chose this scene. Our understanding of a text is greatly affected by the context in which scenes take place. Act 3 Scene 2 transpires after a series of turbulent events and the increasing surveillance of Hamlet’s life. In the preceding scene Hamlet considers suicide in the â€Å"To be or not to be,† soliloquy after learning that his father’s sudden death was in fact a murder by his uncle Claudius’s hand. He plans to prove the ghost’s word by watching his uncle’s reaction to a play that follows the events of Hamlet’s father’s death. Hamlet also confronts Ophelia and denounces her and women in misogynous diatribe overheard by the spying Polonius and Claudius. After hearing this Claudius decide to export Hamlet to England with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, as â€Å"madness in great ones must not unwatched go†. The latter gives audiences insight to later events in the play. Context is the basis of our understanding of certain lines, soliloquies and actions and overall affects our understanding of the entire play. The ‘Play within a play’ scene is a pivotal scene in Hamlet and its significance resounds throughout the rest of the play. It is a scene dripping in dramatic irony because Hamlet triumphs over the king in full public view while Claudius deals in secret to obtain information. The scene comes as the action following Hamlet’s musings of death, and the relative inaction of the first two acts. Knowing he was correct about his father’s murder Hamlet is emboldened and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern then sets out to confront his mother fracturing numerous relationships. Furthermore, Claudius’s sudden exit from the play raises the question whether he was reacting to the guilt of murdering his brother or to the act of Lucianus, the murdering nephew of king Gonzago in the Mouse Trap, possibly foreshadowing his own death. Either could be the trigger of Claudius’s decision too have Hamlet killed in England. The significance of this particular scene is undeniable because of its importance is upheld throughout the rest of Hamlet and this is why it affects audiences understanding of the entire play. As a pivotal scene, many themes in Hamlet are present including action versus inaction, espionage, revenge and deceit. These mix into a tangible cocktail to which audiences are more likely to pay attention to and gain better understanding. The scene provides the first ‘action’ in the play after driving uncertainty of the first two acts, the audiences reaction epitomised in a player’s line â€Å" so after Pyrrus’ pause, a roused vengeance sets him to work†. Revenge is the motive behind Hamlets writing of the play. Espionage makes another appearance in Hamlet’s urging Horatio to ‘observe my uncle. If this occulted guilt do not unkennel itself in one speech, it is a damned ghost we have seen† Rosencrantz and Guildenstern deceitfulness comes to an end when Hamlet turns the tables on them using the metaphor of how he was played like a pipe then later abandoning and sending them to their deaths. The presence of themes allows audiences to make connections with dialogue and leads to heightened understanding of the play and this is why act 3 scene 2 is crucial to the understanding of the entire play. A plethora of literary devices is used throughout the scene causing the meanings of numerous lines to be left up to the audience’s interpretation. Use of dramatic irony, alliteration, metaphor, pun, repetition and others highlights lines that are of greater importance for example, Hamlet’s mocking â€Å"what, frightened with false fire! † to his uncles reaction to the murder as well as the extended metaphor of hamlet being a pipe played upon by Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. The dramatic irony of the scene is important, as it is Hamlet’s action that snowballs into the different outcomes. Hamlet’s rhyming flattery to Horatio is full of literary techniques like alliteration (need example), possibly highlighting his desperation to keep one faithful friend by his side or adoration or want of Horatio’s balanced character. Hamlets jovial punning makes light of all that said to him by authority figures, this being an attempt at showing possible rebelliousness or more likely showing his enthusiasm for the outcome of the play’s impact on the king. We do not know which part of the play Hamlet scripted so it can be assumed that some of his own feelings are showing through the repetition of love and fear whether this be about his love of Ophelia or incestuous thoughts about Gertrude. Understanding of act 3 scene 2 is crucial to our understanding of Hamlet. This is assisted through the uses of literary techniques, the presence of many themes to capture audience’s attention, the significance of these and the context in which the scene takes place. These combine to make this scene of upmost importance to our interpretation of the entire play and that is why it was chosen. 5min14secs Matt: I’ve re-worked your speech below using as much as possible, cutting out the repetition, and suggesting where examples from the play are needed to illustrate your point. We can add these in tomorrow as I want you to go through this process of selecting appropriate egs with me. Apologies for typos – something is rotten in the state of our computer (ref to the play, sorry! ) â€Å"The play is the thing in which I’ll catch the conscience of the king† [Good morning teachers and students, our understanding of Hamlet takes many turns and the most important of these is in act 3 scene II. As a pivotal scene in William Shakespeare’s play, audiences gain an understanding of the characters and their actions leading up to this point. Many of the themes in the play come to light in this scene as the plot gathers pace and it is for all these reasons I chose this scene. Too vague: needs a more dramatic opening eg rhetorical question, or fabulous quote or natty and relevant anecdote or recent current happening that you can relate to this scene to catch the audience attention. The intro needs also not to waste words that could refer to specific context, themes, dramatic techniques, particular character development and plot development. Adding language aspects into this intro may be overdoing it but the word play on the idea of the â€Å"play† and â€Å"play within the play† might work. ] e. g. Can you think of a more delicious irony or more dramatic way of catching out a murderous hypocrite like Claudius than putting on a play in full public view that shows two audiences – the court of Denmark and us – how he killed the rightful king? Especially since we know that Claudius has set up all those who are closest to Hamlet, except for the faithful Horatio, to spy on him in secret! I chose this play within the play scene – Act 3 Scene II – for a number of reasons: firstly, for the lovely dramatic irony I just mentioned; secondly, it is pivotal in terms of resolving Hamlet’s doubts and advancing the plot towards the final bloody end; thirdly, it is very satisfying drama, with lots of action following on from the lengthy musings and relative inaction of Hamlet’s famous. â€Å"To be or not to be† soliloquy; in addition it reflects a number of key themes and preoccupations of the play, including that of surveillance; and finally it is incredibly dramatic and beautifully written, with lots of the fantastic and funny word play, vivid images and other literary and dramatic techniques we all love about Shakespeare. This scene, as I said in the introduction, is pivotal in terms of the action of the entire play, and also in terms of Hamlet’s evolution, from inactive to hyperactive. In the preceding scene Hamlet considers suicide after learning from the Ghost that his father’s sudden death was in fact a murder by his uncle Claudius. The Ghost is a mysterious character about whom there are considerable doubts – does he represent the troubled state of Denmark following the death of a beloved and heroic king and/or does he represent H’s traumatised mind following the sort of tragedy that would unhinge most of us. [ref to a critic here? ]. Whatever we say about Hamlet and his tendency to overdo the thinking aspect of life, he does approach problems with a fair and scientific mind: he does resolve to kill his father’s murderer, but, fair enough, as death is reasonably permanent, even for Shakespeare’s religious audiences, he set up the play within the play as a kind of controlled test for his uncle, whom the Ghost purporting to be King Hamlet has said killed him: He tells Horatio to observe his uncle during the  play as well and â€Å"after we will both our judgments join in censure of his seeming†: this does indicate that Hamlet, despite his understandable hatred of Claudius, is a fair man, who is also aware of the seriousness of killing the man who is now King of Denmark. Elizabethan audiences would have recognised Hamlet’s hesitation about killing the King as reasonable, just as they would have seen his vengeance once his suspicions had been confirmed, as justified. This scene also follows Hamlet’s misogynist confrontation of Ophelia which is overheard by the spying Polonius and Claudius, who decides at this point to export Hamlet to England with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, since â€Å"madness in great ones must not unwatched go†. Since Ophelia had also been encouraged to spy on Hamlet, we now have his dastardly uncle, his school friends, and his fiance, not to mention his mother, keeping a close watch on Hamlet: no wonder he needed a theatrical outlet! However, seriously, we see here a recurring and important theme in the entire play, that of spying and surveillance. The Michael Almereyda directed film version of Hamlet with its constant CCTV cameras and Hamlet’s speaking into the cameras provide the perfect representation of the sense of inescapable surveillance that Hamlet feels he is under throughout the play. : FIND QUOTES re SPYING IN THIS SCENE. Another key theme of this play within the play scene. amd to the entire play, that relates to the spying is that of deceit, and of illusion masking the reality. The play Hamlet devises to catch the King out is called â€Å"The Moustrap†, and its aim is to depict the exact way in which Claudius killed his brother, that is, by pouring poison into his ear, not the commonest way to kill someone! If King Claudius reacts is a guilty manner, presumably this demonstrates his guilt. So Hamlet’s goal is to unmask his uncle in front of the entire court, including the wife he has won so wrongfully. Plays are a theatrical form of illusion, masquerading as reality, just as Claudius in killing the rightful king, marrying his widow and acting as a legitimate King, is masquerading. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are similarly masquerading as Hamlet’s friends, while in reality they are deceitfully reporting on his actions and words to his treacherous uncle. The play within the play traps Claudius just as Hamlet himself must have felt trapped within this world without honesty and fidelity. The theme of honesty and reliability, those qualities that Hamlet craves and finds in no-one but his friend Horatio, provides a key to a deeper understanding of Hamlet’s apparently cruel behaviour towards his mother and also Ophelia, and also to Polonius and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. â€Å"Give me that man/That is not passions’s slave .. and I will wear him/ in my †¦ heart of hearts†: Hamlet, having suffered the worst tragedy one can imagine, finds no person in his circle whom he can trust except for Horatio. [ repetition Our understanding of a text is greatly affected by the context in which scenes take place. Act 3 Scene 2 transpires after a series of turbulent events too vague – what events? References like this read like padding and markers know it! ] and the increasing surveillance of Hamlet’s life. The play within the play leads us to a focus on another potent theme of this scene and of the entire play: revenge! â€Å" So after Pyrrus’ pause, a roused vengeance sets him to work†. Revenge is the motive behind Hamlet’s writing of the play, and once his suspicions have been confirmed, Hamlet is ready to turn his vengeful thoughts into action. This scene is brilliant drama! There is beautiful dramatic irony in Hamlet’s selection of a play to trap the guilty king. And there is lots of discussion of theatrics, and how the players should speak their lines, which reveals Shakespeare’s own deep understanding of the craft of acting, the more realistic version being more like his own preferred style: â€Å"Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand †¦ the purpose of playing,.. is to hold the mirror up to nature†, that is to act as one would speak and act out such lines in reality. Critics say that Shakespeare is having a go here at the plays of Chrsitopher Marlowe and the players such as Edward Alleyn at the Rose Theatre, who was known for a rather exaggerated approach to acting. Whatever the origins of these descriptions of how NOT to act, they are very funny, and must have made an Elizabethan audience as well as myself, a 21 century lad, laugh! â€Å"O it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters: etc. [we need egs of each of these Use of dramatic irony, alliteration, metaphor, pun, repetition and others] Shakespeare’s literary teachniques also work brilliantly in this scend. As well as the dramatic irony, we have superb play on words combining wioth the extended highlights lines that are of greater importance for example, Hamlet’s mocking â€Å"what, frightened with false fire!  phor of hamlet being a pipe played upon by Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. The dramatic irony of the scene is important, as it is Hamlet’s action that snowballs into the different outcomes. Hamlet’s rhyming flattery to Horatio is full of literary techniques like alliteration (need example), possibly highlighting his desperation to keep one faithful friend by his side or adoration or want of Horatio’s balanced character. Hamlets jovial punning makes light of all that said to him by authority figures, this being an attempt at showing possible rebelliousness or more likely showing his enthusiasm for the outcome of the play’s impact on the king. We do not know which part of the play Hamlet scripted so it can be assumed that some of his own feelings are showing through the repetition of love and fear whether this be about his love of Ophelia or incestuous thoughts about Gertrude. Understanding of act 3 scene 2 is crucial to our understanding of Hamlet. This is assisted through the uses of literary techniques, the presence of many themes to capture audience’s attention, the significance of these and the context in which the scene takes place. These combine to make this scene of upmost importance to our interpretation of the entire play and that is why it was chosen. 5min14secs Character development – in this question